Qijia Culture: 2400 BC – 1900 BC

The Qijia Culture was a late neolithic & early Bronze Age culture distributed around the upper Yellow River region of western Gansu (centered in Lanzhou) and eastern Qinghai, China. The Qijia is the only Neolithic culture to be uncovered in China that shows northern Eurasian influence. The potters of the Qijia produced a wide variety of  vessels including cord-impressed pottery of multiple shapes and sizes in addition to more carefully crafted vessels such as this, with none, one, two or three handles – three handled vessels like this example are by far the rarest form & are stylistically far ahead of their time, with virtually no similar designs being produced by other Chinese cultures for nearly 2,000 years.

Yangshao culture; Machang phase 2400 – 2000BC

The Yangshao culture was a Neolithic culture that existed extensively along the central Yellow River in China. The Yangshao culture is dated from around 5000 BC to 3000 BC. The Yangshao culture is divided into 3 phases – Maijiayao (c.3,000–2,500 BC), Banshan (2500–2000 BC) and Machang (2200–1500 BC). Artifacts from each neolithic era are usually identified by the type of decoration found on the objects. Decorative motifs on Machang-period wares are largely geometric and include curvilinear patterns and cross-hatching, and lozenges, triangles, circles, and squares in an endless array of combinations.

Yangshao culture; Machang phase 2400 – 2000BC

This particular example features several zoomorphic figures encircling the vessel. These painted designs have been variously interpreted, sometimes explained as abstract representations of natural creatures such as frogs; other hypotheses suggest that they are symbolic of either the costume worn by a shaman or the transformation he undergoes during rituals, or possibly an early representation of dance.

Lower Xiajiadian culture 2200 – 1600 BC

The Lower Xiajiadian culture was a late neolithic & early bronze age culture that lived in Northeast China, found mainly in southeastern Inner Mongolia, northern Hebei and western Liaoning, China. Despite having a high population density that would not be matched until the much later Liao dynasty, relatively little is known about this culture & it is virtually unknown among Western scholars. The pottery of the Lower Xiajiadian is quite unique among neolithic cultures; many vessels feature three mammiform legs and a highly burnished surface, giving the pottery an otherworldly, futuristic look.

Lower Xiajiadian culture 2200 – 1600 BC

Lower Xiajiadian culture 2200 – 1600 BC

Lower Xiajiadian culture 2200 – 1600 BC

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

During the Han Dynasty burial rituals became increasingly complex and hierarchical. Funerary wares from the Han period provide a fascinating insight into the nature of daily life. There are replicas of complete farms with granaries, animal pens and domestic dwellings. Aristocratic tombs also contained substantial terracotta and wooden figures which attested to the status and power of the deceased, such as sculptures of warriors and their chariots, foot soldiers, grain stores and horses.

Potters continued to use traditional bronze forms, such as the hu, when making these ceramic imitations and the glazing was chosen to mimic the appearance of bronze. This substitution of ceramic for metal food containers and drinking vessels marked the beginning of what would become one of China’s most important artistic fields, the production of fine porcelain. Vessels were also made in the shape of animals as well as more conventional forms, often richly decorated with hand painted pigments.

Tomb sites of the Han elite were very large. A central corridor lead to the burial chamber while side annexes and niches provided room for the necessary funerary wares.

Models of stoves, both in bronze and ceramic, were popular during the Han dynasty but became rare in later periods.

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

This particular model of a stove features a rich glaze with a high lead content.

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

These elegantly postured earthenware pottery court officials would have likely been placed in a highly ranking official’s tomb. They both feature richly painted robes with a set of keys hanging from their clasped hands.

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

This extremely rare Han “hill jar” censer would have been used to burn incense in. The lid is removable and features incised relief form animals including an elephant, monkey, horse, and other real & mythical beasts.

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

This exceptionally rare Han censer is glazed with an oxidized high lead glaze that would have been colored with a compound of copper and iron oxide with a small amount of tin oxide.

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

This earthenware tripod funerary censer modeled after a cooking vessel has traces of original pigment remaining.

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

This earthenware tripod ding is modeled after a bronze cooking vessel.

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

This rare earthenware vessel is modeled with a wide, globular body & a tall, narrow neck with the head of a duck or goose.

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

This large earthenware jar is modeled with a wide body and two handles bordering a large mouth. The jar is lightly banded and heavily potted.

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

This painted earthenware vessel would likely have been used as a flowerpot, judging by the drainage holes in the bottom.

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

This large grey ware granary jar rests on three legs, molded to look like bears.

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

This elegantly sculpted painted earthenware horse’s head would have likely been part of the funerary offering left in the tomb of a high ranking official or military officer.

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

This very rare painted earthenware jar has been sculpted in the shape of an owl and painted to include feathers, wings, and large, oval eyes.

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

This large painted pottery model of a soldier would have been an important part of the tomb of a very wealthy government official or general. It has been painted in great detail using multiple pigments.

Originally part of a set, this individual figurine represents an infantryman in a charged position with both hands clasped as if to hold a weapon. The right hand is lifted to carry a spear that is no longer there while the left arm is clenched firmly along his side. The soldier wears a long tunic. On his upper torso he wears a short apron with an armored vest and a white v- shaped collar. Angular faces with individual traits are briefly drawn.

No need was felt to replicate the specific individuals who composed the original army- only their functions since their personalities were fully subsumed by their roles within the military group. Even so, particularizing the individual soldiers enabled the artisans to differentiate within groups as well as indicate that our group is indeed composed of infantrymen. The group would have belonged to a larger terracotta army meant for burial and by stylistic comparison can be safely attributed to the late Western Han period. The piece would have been created in a mould and painted while the weapons would have been made of perishable wood.

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

This rare “swirling eye” black earthenware jar with waisted profile and two bow handles features decorations of striations around the neck and on the shallow raised footring. The type is known as Lifan after the area of Sichuan province in which such jars have been found.

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

This large earthenware hu jar, modeled to appear like a bronze vessel of similar design, features incised bands that encircle the piece and two Taotie masks on either side. The Taotie is a motif that originated during the much earlier Shang Dynasty, used on bronze vessels. The meaning of the Taotie motif has been a source of debate among scholars and while there are many theories, there is no answer which can be definitively proven. Most scholars favor an interpretation that supports the idea that the faces have meaning in a religious or ceremonial context, as the objects they appear on are almost always associated with such events or roles.

Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD

This large, oxidized green lead-glazed pottery model of a well illustrates how mingqi (funerary objects) were used to represent every aspect of daily life.

Western Jin Dynasty 265-316 AD

The Western Jin Dynasty was relatively short-lived, but witnessed fast economic and cultural development. This particular style of pottery horse, especially rare and heavily potted, with traces of white paint remaining & featuring a prominent horn atop its head, was typically attributed to the Han Dynasty, but recent archeological evidence suggests that they were produced during the later Jin Dynasty. The pointed ears and exaggerated head features, as well as the strong musculature, conform with the grotesque style preferred by the Henan potters. The decoration of models with red or white paint is a survival of an earlier northern tradition.

Northern Wei Dynasty 386 – 534 AD

This free-standing painted pottery model of a horse and rider is exquisitely painted. The first literary mention of equine armor in China occurs around the third century AD. The great warlord Cao Cao boasted that with only ten sets of horse armor he had faced an opponent with three hundred. This horse appears to be armored and caparisoned and the rider is heavily armored as well with a helmet enclosing his face. The rider would likely have held a wooden spear or banner that has long since rotted away after extended burial.

The pottery horses of the Northern Wei are typically elegant in their sculpture, however this one seems almost crudely formed, with thick legs, a small head, and seemingly little care given to proportion. A slightly similar horse & rider is found in the collection of the Musée Cernuschi in Paris, although their example is unpainted.

Northern Qi Dynasty 550 – 577 AD

This rare example of a painted pottery model of a horse appears at first glance to be a very simple sculpture, but upon closer examination one can see that the sculptor put a great deal of care into carefully and subtly capturing the detailed musculature of the horse.

Northern Qi Dynasty 550 – 577 AD

This exceptional painted pottery model of an ox is an absolutely striking piece. It is posed mid-stride, with powerful muscles displayed accurately & great care taken in crafting the detailed legs and hooves.

Northern Qi Dynasty 550 – 577 AD

This painted pottery model of an official is carefully painted to give this tomb sculpture a unique look. Although members of the nobility and ruling elite would have likely had several of such figures in their tombs, no two figures were exactly alike in their painted features. This particular example seems to wear a slight smile on his face – his face and clothing has been cold-painted using several different pigments.

Tang Dynasty 618 – 907

During the Tang Dynasty, China experienced a period of great cultural growth, noted for its achievements in all areas of the arts and sciences. The tolerance of the Tang Imperial Court to outside influence and the free movement along the East-West trade route known as the Silk Road saw major urban centres become thriving cosmopolitan cities, with the Chinese capital, Chang’an (modern Xian) expanding to reach a population of over one million.

In keeping with centuries of tradition, funerary rites remained very important. A separate government department existed with responsibility for overseeing the manufacture of funerary wares. Officially there were limits on the number of grave goods and restrictions on the size of the objects which could accompany the deceased, according to rank – the highest ranked officials were meant to have a maximum of 90 figurines, no more than 30cm tall while members of the Imperial family were allowed several hundred up to about one metre tall. However, these rules were frequently broken. The deceased’s relatives believed they could improve their ancestor’s status in the afterlife by providing mingqi in excess of necessity, thereby ensuring their own good fortune.

Tang Dynasty figurative ceramics share particular characteristics. The forms are animated and life-like, the subject matter covers all aspects of social and ritual life and the scale of the figures was reasonably small with the exception of some magnificent larger works commissioned for the tombs of the elite.

This example of a painted pottery horse & rider resting on a rectangular base displays an incredible quality of craftsmanship. While sculptures such as this were not created as art for the enjoyment of the living, they nonetheless display the amazing imagination of the sculptors, who bestowed upon their subjects various personalities. In this case, the horse’s mouth is open and its head cocked to the left.

Tang Dynasty 618 – 907

The olive green glaze on this jar is in remarkable condition and the lid and body are decorated with pinched-clay banding. A lidded jar such as this would likely have been used for grain storage in the tomb, intended for use in the afterlife.

Song Dynasty 960 – 1279 AD

This Qingbai funerary vase, likely from a tomb in Jiangxi, has a short, ovoid body and long cylindrical neck.

These Mingqi jars were made as pairs; numerous comparable examples are known in the literature, however they vary enormously in their variety. Constructed of pre-made sections, the jars were applied with mould-made appliqués, these, like the later Fujian appliqués found on Blanc de Chine vary incredibly from object to object. The bird finials represents the Vermilion Bird of the South, the coiled Dragon is the Green Dragon of the East. The collar of figures represent immortals – a domesticated dog sits below one of the figures.

Ming Dynasty 1368 – 1644 AD

Upon leading a victorious rebellion against the foreign Mongul rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang seized control of China and founded the Ming Dynasty in 1368. As emperor, he founded his capital at Nanjing and adopted the name Hongwu as his reign title. Hongwu, literally meaning “vast military,” reflects the increased prestige of the army during the Ming Dynasty. Due to the very realistic threat still posed by the Mongols, Hongwu realized that a strong military was essential to Chinese prosperity. Thus, the orthodox Confucian view that the military was an inferior class to be ruled over by an elite class of scholars was reconsidered. During the Ming Dynasty, China proper was reunited after centuries of foreign incursion and occupation. Ming troops controlled Manchuria, and the Korean Joseon Dynasty respected the authority of the Ming rulers, at least nominally.

Like the founders of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.- 220 A.D.), Hongwu was extremely suspicious of the educated courtiers that advised him and, fearful that they might attempt to overthrow him, he successfully consolidated control of all aspect of government. The strict authoritarian control Hongwu wielded over the affairs of the country was due in part to the centralized system of government he inherited from the Monguls and largely kept intact. However, Hongwu replaced the Mongul bureaucrats who had ruled the country for nearly a century with native Chinese administrators. He also reinstituted the Confucian examination system that tested would-be civic officials on their knowledge of literature and philosophy. Unlike the Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.), which received most of its taxes from mercantile commerce, the Ming economy was based primarily on agriculture, reflecting both the peasant roots of its founder as well as the Confucian belief that trade was ignoble and parasitic.

Under the Ming, the practice of burying the dead with large quantities of mingqi was not a usual occurrence. Amongst the elite, funerary wares still accompanied the deceased but there were no longer massive government run kilns dedicated to mingqi production – only the Emperor and his family still followed the tradition of being buried with vast numbers of grave goods. Commissioned by relatives rather than being part of a set ritual, the type of figures changed. It was no longer considered appropriate to fill tombs with representations of daily life, rather, it was a more sombre affair in keeping with the prevailing Neo-Confucian philosophy. However, tomb ceramics were generally of very fine quality – the Ming Dynasty is well recognized artistically for fine ceramics.

This green glazed palanquin would have accompanied a procession of pottery figures and would have been placed in the tomb of a high ranking member of society.

Ming Dynasty 1368 – 1644 AD

This large green glazed pottery model of an offering temple offers insight into the architecture of the Ming. Two small, glazed models of a jar and a bowl accompany the temple.